The Jewish Publication Society publishes the Torah, the Prophets (Nevi'im), and the Writings (Kethuvim) in a single volume called the Tanakh, a twentieth century word made from the three Hebrew words. The Oxford Annotated Bible, with or without the Apocrypha, and the personal study edition of the Catholic Bible offer excellent commentaries. The Qur'an is available in English in many printed and online versions, but the most readable is the translation by A. J. Arberry.

Aaron - The brother of Moses. When God calls Moses to go to Pharaoh, Moses asks God to send someone who is more eloquent. So, God directs Aaron to help Moses free the Israelites from slavery in Egypt. The Torah and the Bible tell the story in Exodus 4. The Qur'an refers 20 times to Aaron and includes this request from Moses to Allah: "My brother Aaron is more eloquent than me in speech. Therefore send him with me as a helper…." (Sura 28:34)

Adam - The Hebrew word for man. God makes Adam from the dust of the ground and breathes life into him. Adam names all the animals of creation, but when no companion is found for him God makes a woman to be with him. Adam and Eve disobey God and are sent from the Garden of Eden as their punishment. They give birth to Cain and Abel, and after Cain kills Abel and is banished, Eve bears Seth, who is the ancestor of Noah. The Torah and the Bible tell the story in Genesis 2-5. The Qur'an refers almost 200 times to the Garden of Eden (or Paradise). Adam appears 18 times, often in the phrase "son of Adam," that Allah asks all the angels to prostate themselves before Adam. (Suras 2:34, 7:11, 17:61, 18:50, 20:116) The Qur'an has narrative passages, but is not primarily a narrative. It is largely a collection of teachings and warnings, and it often itself, as in this instance.

Abraham - God calls Abram to leave his home in Mesopotamia, in what today is Iraq. God gives him the name Abraham, meaning ancestor of many, as a sign of God's promise to give him land and descendants. Abraham does what God says, but also expects God to act justly. When God intends to destroy the people of Sodom for their wickedness, Abraham argues that God should spare the city, if there are ten just men in it. God tests Abraham's faith by commanding him to sacrifice his son, Isaac. When obeys, God provides a ram for the sacrifice. The story of Abraham in the Torah and the Bible is in Genesis 11:27-25:11. In the New Testament Paul refers to Abraham in many of his letters as the man of faith, because Abraham trusted in God. The Qur'an refers to Abraham 245 times in 25 Suras. Only Moses receives more attention.

Allah - The Arabic word for the one and only God, which is used in the Qur'an. It is not the name of God, as the Hebrew YHWH in Jewish scripture represents the name of God.

Arabs - By legend the Arabs are descendants of Ishmael, the oldest son of Abraham, who was born of Hagar, the Egyptian woman who served Sarah, Abraham's wife. In the Torah and the Bible the descendants of Ishmael are identified in Genesis 25:12-18.

Bathsheba - The wife of Uriah, a Hittite soldier serving in David's army. After David rapes Bathsheba and she becomes pregnant, David has Uriah killed in battle so he can marry Bathsheba. Their first child dies, and the prophet Nathan declares this is God's punishment for David's wrongdoing. David repents, and Bathsheba bears David another son, Solomon, who becomes king after David's death.

Bethlehem - The city where David was born, as the son of Jesse. Micah 5:2 in the Prophets and the Bible says: "But you, O Bethlehem of Ephrathah, who are one of the little clans of Judah, from you shall come forth for me one who is to rule in Israel, whose origin is from of old, from ancient of days." The verse is paraphrased in Matthew 2:6 of the Bible and interpreted by Christians as referring to the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem.

Bible - The book containing the writings that Christians read as scripture. The bishops of the Roman Empire decided in the fourth century that the Bible would include the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, and 27 other books. Protestant reformers in the sixteenth century used the Hebrew scriptures, authorized by rabbis about 200 CE, as the basis for the Old Testament of the Bible. The Hebrew scriptures contain fewer books than the Septuagint, therefore Protestant Bibles have fewer books in the Old Testament than Catholic Bibles.

Christians - The followers of Jesus were initially Jews, who identified their movement as the Way. They were named Christians by critics in the Roman city of Antioch (Acts 11:26). The New Testament gospels do not contain this word, and there are only three references elsewhere in the New Testament of the Bible. Martyrs for Christ later proudly accepted the name.

Constantine - The Roman Emperor converted to Christianity, legend says, in 312 CE before winning a decisive battle for control of the Empire. In 325 he convened the Council of Nicea that wrote the Nicene Creed and decided what writings to include in the Bible.

Daniel - The book attributed to Daniel is placed with the Writings in Jewish Scripture, because it was written after the exile of people from Jerusalem to Babylon. In the Old Testament of the Bible the book of Daniel is among the Prophets. This book tells of Daniel's faith and courage under Babylonian rule. Christians read Daniel for its passages about the end of time, and in three of the New Testament gospels Jesus quotes Daniel 7:13 in his dialogue with the Roman governor of Palestine, before being sentenced to death. (Mt 26: 64, Mk 14:62, Lk 22:70)

David - The story of David is told in 1 and 2 Samuel and in 1 Kings 1-2, and with much variation in 1 Chronicles 10-12, in the Jewish scriptures and in the Old Testament of the Bible. David unites the Israelite tribes, defeats the Philistines and other enemies of the people, conquers Jerusalem and makes it the capital of the new nation, and founds a dynasty. Many of the Psalms in Jewish scripture and the Old Testament are attributed to David, and in the New Testament gospels Jesus is sometimes called the Son of David. The Qur'an mentions David 16 times, both as a prophet and as the one who received the Psalms from Allah. (Suras 4:163, 17:55)

Elizabeth - The story of Elizabeth, the wife of Zechariah and the mother of John the Baptist, is told in Luke 1 in the New Testament of the Bible. The angel Gabriel comes to her, promising that she will bear a special child, despite her old age. In the story she is said to be a relative of Mary, the mother of Jesus.

Esther - A book among the Writings of Jewish scripture and in the Old Testament of the Bible. As young Jewish woman, Esther wins a beauty contest and is made the queen of Persia. When Persian officials begin to persecute the Jews, Esther turns the king against them and thus saves her people. The Jewish festival of Purim celebrates her victory.

Eve - A name meaning "the mother of all living," which is given in Genesis 3:20, in the Torah and the Bible, to the first woman. In the story of Garden of Eden Eve is tempted by the serpent to eat the fruit that God as forbidden. She eats, and also encourages Adam to eat. Her temptation of Adam has been the model in literature for stories of tempting women.

Gabriel - An angel, who speaks to Daniel in the Writings of Jewish scripture and in the Old Testament of the Bible, and to Elizabeth and Mary in Luke 1 of the New Testament of the Bible. In the Qur'an Gabriel transmits messages in Arabic from Allah to Muhammad and at times is mentioned with the angel Michael.

Isaac - The son of Abraham and Sarah, and the father of Esau and Jacob. His story is told in Genesis 21-28 in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Qur'an refers to him 16 times as a messenger of Allah.

Ishmael - The son of Abraham and Hagar, an Egyptian servant. After it seems she will not bear her Abraham an heir, Sarah allows her husband to father a son through Hagar. In Genesis 17:20 in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible, God blesses Ishmael, and Genesis 25:16 says the twelve sons of Ismael become the ancestors of twelve tribes. Muslims trace their lineage to Ishmael, and because Ishmael was circumcised (Genesis 17:25) Muslims also circumcise. Muslims believe that Allah tested Abraham by commanding him to sacrifice Ishmael, not Isaac. The Qur'an refers to Ishmael 12 times, usually with Abraham and Isaac in a list of prophets.

Islam - The word for the religion practiced by Muslims. Both Islam and Muslim are derived from an Arabic word meaning submission. Islam means submitting to the will of Allah, as revealed in the Qur'an, and Muslims are those who do submit.

Israel - A name given to Jacob after he wrestles with God (or an angel) in Genesis 32:28, in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible. Jacob fathers twelve sons, who become the ancestors of twelve tribes, and these tribes are called Israelites. The name of the nation founded by David is Israel, but after the death of Solomon and the kingdom is divided, "Israel" refers only to the northern area where ten of the twelve tribes live. The southern kingdom is called Judah after its main tribe. The Qur'an twice refers to the Jews as "the children of Israel."

Israelites - The descendants of Jacob, who is also called Israel, are known as Israelites up to the time the Babylonians capture Jerusalem and take its leaders into exile. Thereafter, the descendants of Jacob, whether living at home or in other lands, are known as Jews.

Jacob - The son of Isaac and Rebekah. Jacob steals Isaac's blessing for his older brother Esau, and flees to his mother's brother for protection, where he marries Leah and Rachel, his cousins. He works, accumulates herds and wealth, and then returns home. Before being reconciled with his brother, he wrestles with God (or an angel) in the night and receives a blessing and the name Israel. Jacob has twelve sons by his two wives and two of their servant women. The Qur'an refers to Jacob 4 times, usually in the phrase "Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob.

Jerusalem - The city of Shalem (or Salem) is known as Jerusalem before David conquers it and makes it Israel's capital. After the Assyrians conquer the northern tribes of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem is the capital of the southern kingdom of Judah. The Babylonians conquer the city in 587 BCE, destroy the temple, and take the city's leaders into exile in Babylon. When the Persians conquer the Babylonians in 539 BCE, some exiles are allowed to return to Jerusalem.

Jesus - The story of this Jew is told in the four New Testament gospels of the Bible, and the rest of the New Testament considers the meaning of his life, death and continuing life in the church that calls him the Christ, the Son of God. The Qur'an mentions Jesus 25 times. For instance, Sura 2:136 tells Muslims to say: "We believe in Allah and that which is revealed unto us and that which was revealed unto Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and that which the Prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Allah we have surrendered."

Jews - The name used for descendants of Israel after they are dispersed by the Babylonians, who conquered Jerusalem at the end of the sixth century BCE, and the name used for descendants of the Jewish people since then. Jesus, his disciples, and Paul, the main Christian apostle to the Gentiles, were all Jews. The Qur'an explicitly refers to "the Jews" 9 times.

Job - The book of Job in the Writings of Jewish scripture and in the Old Testament of the Bible tells the story of a good man who suffers, because God allows Satan to test his faith. After Job curses God, friends argue that God must be punishing Job for his wrongs, or for the wrongs of his ancestors, or for some other reason. Out of a whirlwind God comes to Job, demanding his allegiance despite his suffering. Job repents of his curse, God says his friends were wrong, and God restores Job's health and all he has lost. In the Qur'an Job is identified as a prophet.

John the Baptist - The son of Elizabeth and Zechariah. The four New Testament gospels of the Bible present John as calling people to repent of their sins, and baptizing those who do. Jesus begins his ministry in all four gospels by coming to John, where he is baptized in three of the gospels and identified as the Lamb of God in the fourth. The Qur'an mentions John as a prophet.

Joseph - The favorite son of Jacob and Rachel, Joseph is sold by his jealous brothers into slavery and taken to Egypt, where he is falsely accused of trying to rape the wife of his master and is imprisoned. After he says Pharoah's dream means a drought is coming, Pharaoh releases him from prison and puts him in charge of storing grain. The drought drives Joseph's brothers to Egypt to buy food. They are reunited with Joseph and forgiven, and they move with their father and relatives to Egypt. This story is told in the last half of Genesis in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Qur'an refers to Joseph 27 times and narrates his story in Sura 12.

Leah - The oldest daughter of Laban, the brother of Rebecca, and the first wife of Jacob, the son of Isaac and Rebecca. She is the mother of six sons, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun, and a daughter named Dinah.

Mary - The mother of Jesus, whose story is told in Luke 1-2 in the New Testament of the Bible. The New Testament gospels also relate that Mary is present at the death of Jesus, and Acts 1:14 says she is with the disciples in Jerusalem and part of the beginning of the church. Mary is the only woman named in the Qur'an, which refers to her 34 times. Sura 19, which is named "Mary," tells of the birth of Jesus. In the Qur'an more than half the references to Jesus identify him as "the son of Mary."

Mary Magdalene - Mary of Magdala, who is known in the New Testament of the Bible as Mary Magdalene or simply as Magdalene, was a close associate of Jesus. Luke 8:2 says she was healed by Jesus, and all of the New Testament gospels record that she found his tomb open. The gospel of John reports that Mary Magdalene was alone at the tomb when Jesus appeared to her.

Mecca - The home city of Muhammad, peace be upon him. Muslims travel there to circle the Ka'bah, a place Muslims believe Abraham set aside for the worship of the one God.

Medina - The city that protected Muhammad, peace be upon him, after he fled from Mecca, and also supported him when he returned to Mecca to begin his rule over the tribes of Arabia.

Micah - A prophet living near Jerusalem around 700 BCE. His writings are among the Prophets of the Jewish scriptures and in the Old Testament of the Bible.

Moses - An Israelite, who was named and raised by an Egyptian princess. Moses was called by God and led his people to freedom from Egypt and through the wilderness, where God gave him the commandments found in the Torah. The story of Moses is told in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy is presented as a sermon given by Moses. All these writings are in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Qur'an mentions Moses 136 times, primarily in Suras 2, 7, 10, 20, 26 and 28, and it relates many details found in the Torah's story of Moses. Surah 41:45 affirms that Allah "gave Moses the Scripture."

Muhammad (pbuh) - In Islam he is the final prophet, who was chosen by Allah to receive the messages collected in the Qur'an. The son of Abdullah, of the tribe of Qureysh, which claimed descent from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, Muhammad, peace be upon him, lived his life in the cities of Mecca and Medina. He received his revelations early in the seventh century, and these messages were written down around 650 CE after his death. As a sign of respect, Muslims always says "peace be upon him" after using his name, which in print is sometimes abbreviated to "pbuh." As a sign of respect for Muslims, this book adheres to this practice.

Muslims - The name for those who read the Qur'an as scripture. Muslim in Arabic means to submit. Muslims submit to the one God. There are now about 1.2 billion Muslims in the world.

New Testament - In the fourth century CE bishops in the Roman Empire added 27 books written in the early church to the Greek version of the Jewish scriptures, called the Septuagint, to make the Bible. The Septuagint was called the Old Testament, and the 27 additional books were called the New Testament. The New Testament includes four gospels, letters attributed to the apostle Paul and to the apostles Peter and John and also to James and Jude, brothers of Jesus and church leaders after his death, as well as the Revelation attributed to the apostle John.

Noah - A descendant of Adam through Seth, Noah is saved from the flood God sends to punish the people for their corruption and violence. In the Torah and the Bible, God has Noah build an ark for his family and for a male and female from each animal species. In this story Noah's sons, Noah, Shem, Ham and Japheth, become the fathers of all the peoples of the world. Abraham is said to be descended from Shem, the Canaanites from Canaan, and the Egyptians and Africans from Ham. The story of Noah and the flood is in Genesis 6-10 in the Torah and in the Bible.

Paul - Born in Tarsus as a Jew and Roman citizen, and originally named Saul, Paul was converted to the Way about three years after the death of Jesus. Paul founded churches in Roman cities and traveled and wrote to these churches. The New Testament attributes to Paul and his colleagues the following letters: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. Paul wrote before the gospels of the New Testament were written, and he and his generation of Christians read as scripture the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings.

Prophet - Literally, in Hebrew, the word means spokesperson for God. The tradition of speaking for God, at times critically of rulers and priests, begins before David founds the nation. Most of the prophets, who wrote their messages, lived from the eighth to the sixth centuries BCE, when the Israelites were divided and conquered. The Babylonians, who conquered Jerusalem in 587 BCE, sent its leaders into exile. Prophets also wrote during Persian rule, which began in 539 BCE. Jews include among the Prophets the books of Joshua, Judges, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, II Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The Old Testament of the Bible lists the prophetic books as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the same twelve minor prophets. The Qur'an all considers the messengers from God in the scriptures of the Jews and the Christians as prophets. Of the prophets in Christian scripture, the Qur'an explicitly refers to Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Ezekiel, and Daniel.

Psalms - Hymns that are in the Writings of Jewish scripture and the Old Testament of the Bible. The Qur'an refers to these 9 times and asserts that this book was given by Allah to David.

Qur'an - Often written, and pronounced, Koran, the Qur'an is the scripture of the Muslims and understood as the word of God. It contains messages that Muhammad, peace be upon him, said he received from the angel Gabriel. Because these messages from God were in Arabic, they are written in Arabic, and Muslims recite from the Qur'an in Arabic. The Qur'an often uses a plural, which is translated as "We," and is best understood as referring to Allah and the angels.

Rachel - The younger daughter of Laban, the brother of Rebecca, and the second wife of Jacob, the son of Isaac and Rebecca. Rachel is the mother of Joseph and Benjamin.

Romans - In 63 BCE the Roman Empire took control of Jerusalem and the area around it, which under Roman rule was called Palestine. The gospel of Luke in the New Testament of the Bible reports in Luke 2:1 that Jesus was born during the rule of Augustus, who reigned from 27 BCE until 14 CE. Augustus was the first Roman emperor to demand worship as a god. In Luke 3:1 the gospel reports that the ministry of Jesus took place during the reign of Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, which included Jerusalem and the area around it.

Sarah - Originally named Sarai, the wife of Abraham does not expect a child in her old age, and so she laughs when God says she will give birth, and her son is named Isaac, meaning "laughter." After Isaac is born Sarah demands that Abraham send Hagar and Ishmael, his first son, away into the wilderness, and that Isaac receive Abraham's blessing. The story of Sarah is related in Genesis 16-22 in the Torah and in the Old Testament of the Bible.

Satan - In the Writings of Jewish scripture Satan is a prosecuting angel in God's heavenly court, but in the New Testament of the Bible Satan is a fallen angel who opposes the will of God. The story of the temptation of Jesus is told early in the gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke, and the Revelation to John relates a figurative story of the cosmic battle between the forces of Satan and the heavenly army of Christ. Christians read the story of the temptation of Eve in the Garden of Eden, in Genesis 2, as a story of Satan, but Jews do not. The Qur'an mentions Satan 70 times and also refers to him 11 times by the name Iblis. Satan refuses to prostrate himself before Adam, as Allah commands all the angels, and when banished from heaven Satan turns against Allah. As in the New Testament, Satan is said to have tempted Adam and Eve in the Garden.

Solomon - The second and only surviving son of Bathsheba and David, Solomon becomes king after his father dies by murdering his older half-brother. Solomon ruled Israel from about 962 to 922 BCE, and built the first temple in Jerusalem. His story is recounted in 1 Kings 1-11 and in 1 Chronicles 28-2 Chronicles 9 in the Jewish scriptures and in the Old Testament of the Bible. The Qur'an mentions Solomon 17 times, largely in Suras 21 and 27.

Temple - Solomon built the first temple in Jerusalem around 950 BCE. It was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BCE, but rebuilt under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah around 500 BCE, with the permission of the Persian rulers, who defeated the Babylonians in 539 BCE. The second temple was improved during the time of Herod the Great, who served under the Romans as King of the Jews from 37 to 4 BCE. Roman armies destroyed the second temple in 70 CE, when they crushed a Jewish revolt and burned the city of Jerusalem.

Ten Commandments - These are the most prominent commandments given by God to Moses for the Israelite people. In summary, using contemporary language, the Ten Commandments may be stated as:

1. Worship only the God of the Torah.
2. Do not make or worship images of God.
3. Do not use God's name other than in prayer.
4. Do not work on the sabbath, the seventh day of the week.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. Do not murder.
7. Do not commit adultery.
8. Do not steal.
9. Do not lie about your neighbor.
10. Do covet what belongs to your neighbor.

In the Torah and in the Bible these are in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21.

Torah - The five books attributed to Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Torah constitutes the beginning of the Old Testament in the Bible.

Writings - In Hebrew the Writings are called the Kethuvim and are the last books accepted by the rabbis as scripture: the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles. When the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings are bound together in a single book, which today Jews call the Tanakh using consonants from the Hebrew words for the three groups of books, the Writings come last, because the Torah and the Prophets were written earlier. In the Bible, however, the Prophets are placed after the Writings, because Christians believe the prophetic writings point to the coming of Jesus, whose story is told in the New Testament.

Zechariah - In Luke 1 of the New Testament of the Bible Zechariah is identified as a temple priest, the husband of Elizabeth, and the father of John the Baptist. The Qur'an refers to Zechariah 7 times, mentions that he is the father of John, and gives him responsibility for the care of Mary before she becomes the mother of Jesus.

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1 in Faith: A Christian Bible Study † Copyright © 2000 by Robert Traer