Reason(s)

Reason, for some, means logical thinking. More broadly reasons means the grounds or arguments which support a particular understanding of some event or text or practice. In this latter sense the reasons people give for holding to a particular belief or tradition may not be logical, but they are "reasonable" to those who hold them.

Reform

This refers to renewing a tradition, to reshaping its forms and doctrines in ways that are thought to capture the essence of the original teaching and practice. Whether or not such changes in a tradition are actually true to the past is a question of debate among those who want them and those who resist them. But all religious traditions have undergone reform over the centuries; that is, all have changed and at least some of these changes were thought to have renewed the life of the religious community.

Religion(s)

A word used to refer to the practices and beliefs of those who are religious. This circular definition is intentional, because it forces us to think about religious people and what they do and believe in order to understand what religion is. Historically, the word arose in Western usage to refer to the beliefs and practices of non-Christians, which were similar to Christian beliefs and practices but false, because they were not Christian. Slowly the word came to mean the activities and meanings of a particular religious tradition and community, and in this sense it was clear that there were many religions. Very recently, Christians have begun to accept that they too have a religion, which is one among many religions.

In general, the word is not used for religious organizations that are part of a larger tradition. For instance, Protestant churches are not called religions. They are subgroups, or denominations or communities, within the Christian religion. Similarly, new religious movements may generally be seen as part of one religious tradition or another, rather than as new religions. At times, however, new religious movements identify themselves as new religions.

Humanist communities open to the possibility of spiritual experience, and thus engaging in some ritual activities to encourage such experience, might also qualify as religious. They would not be described as religions, however, but as groups within the tradition of religious humanism. Community service organizations and charitable groups would not be described as religious merely because of their good works, even though many religious groups carry on the same work through their organizations. Thus, not all humanist activity is accurately described as religious.

As is apparent, religion is very difficult to define and the word is used in many different ways. Therefore, it is better to speak of religious traditions and religious communities, religious movements and religious practices, religious organizations and religious groups, than simply to refer to religions.

Religionist(s)

This word is sometimes used in interfaith activities, particularly by those speaking English as a second language, to refer to members of religious communities or to people with religious faith. It is also used by some academics. But native English speakers do not use this word to refer to members of their religious communities.

Religious

This adjective is not derived from the noun, religion, but gives meaning to that noun. The adjective refers to the attitude or character of a person who is devout or who is committed to the spiritual discipline of her or his community of faith. The root of the word from the Latin, religio, means to be bound. To be religious is thus to be bound by spiritual ties to God. These ties are the disciplines which members of a tradition accept as their practice. Thus a religious person is one who puts her or his faith into practice within a community of faith and its tradition of practice.

It is hard to conceive of someone who is religious in a generic sense, rather than specifically within a particular tradition. Thus it is best to use the word religious to refer to a particular tradition or community of faith and practice. For Roman Catholics the term is so specific that it refers to those who become members of religious orders. In this case the word functions as a noun, for they are known not only for being religious but also as "religious."

Religious Freedom

Refers to freedom of conscience and religious expression. See "Freedom of Religion or Belief."

Renunciation

The act of detaching oneself from the world. This practice is part of the teaching of Hindu thought and culture, and the story of the Buddha's renunciation of his privileged position is the classic example of what it means. This concept is far less familiar in the West, although one might say that those entering Christian religious orders similarly renounce the world in order to receive it back again in its true and divine form through their new way of life.

Repentance

Refers literally to turning around and going a new way. Repentance is part of the prophetic tradition of the Bible. The prophets of ancient Israel, John the Baptist in the New Testament, and Jesus all call on people to repent and to renew their lives as people of God. Repentance involves confession, or at least acknowledging that we are wrong or headed in the wrong direction. Then it requires the humility and courage to change and do what one knows to be right. For Christians, repentance is the pathway to salvation. Buddhists also speak of repentance as acknowledging and correcting errors, but the word is far less central to the Buddhist tradition than it is to the Christian tradition.

Sacred

Refers to spiritual power, however that is understood; to that which is holy; to that which participates in a reality extending beyond the present reality of time and space.

Saint(s)

Refers to persons who participate in the sacred or who are known to have spiritual power in some unusual way. Some Christians believe this word should be reserved for Christian saints, as it is used in the Bible, or to refer only to those Christians who are raised to sainthood through the institutional procedures of the Roman Catholic Church. Scholars tend to use this term for all those individuals within the various religious traditions who express and represent extraordinary spiritual power.

Salvation

The notion of salvation implies that the present state of humankind and the world is cut off from God, however one understands why and how that came to be. Religious traditions are means of salvation, ways by which we can be reunited with God. The word "salvation" is more common to the theistic traditions than to other religious traditions. In the Hindu tradition the goal is not salvation but moksha, which means liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Similarly, Buddhists speak of liberation from illusion rather than of salvation. Thus the word "salvation" should not be used generically, as the goal of all religious traditions, but specifically within the contexts where it is the way of speaking of the goal of religious life.

Scripture(s)

Refers to the texts of religious traditions. These are very central in some religious communities, as is the Torah among Jews, the Bible among Christians, and the Qur'an among Muslims. In these traditions the scriptures are defined and agreed upon, even if there are disputes over their meaning. Among Buddhists the word scriptures refers to the texts that are used by a particular Buddhist community. As there has been no generally recognized authority in the history of Buddhist practice to define the teachings of Buddha, writings attributed to the Buddha and texts prepared by Buddhists seeking to extend the Buddha's teachings into a new culture may all be described as scripture. Whereas Christians have a "closed canon," or book of authorized scriptures, the Buddhists have an "open canon," and thus some Buddhists may use scriptures that are not used by other Buddhists.

Secular

Refers to modern society, as developed in the West, and to the notion that religion is not necessary for a good society and may even be contrary to the spirit of openness and tolerance which is thought to be essential for a good society. The institutions of secular society may be neutral to religious life, allowing religious groups to form and operate freely, so long as the rights of others are respected. This has generally been the case in North America and northern Europe. Or the institutions of secular society may be antagonistic to religious communities, as was true throughout the Cold War in Eastern Europe.

In the United States it is assumed that religious freedom requires a secular state, a government which refrains from supporting a religious community as the established religion of the land. In Europe various forms of religious establishment have accompanied support for religious freedom. In Islamic thought a secular state is identified with a godless society, as the Muslims believe that the state should reflect and implement the divine will as revealed to Muhammad in the Qur'an.

Shinto

The indigenous religious tradition of the Japanese. Shinto recognizes the power of the divine in kami that manifest themselves especially in certain natural objects, such as mountains, rivers, and trees. Traditionally there were no doctrines; the rituals defined the religion. After encounter with Westerners, some Shinto leaders began to articulate the ideas of their tradition.

Shintoist(s)

Refers to those who practice Shinto. Generally it is Japanese who use this term, even as they tend to speak of Religionists. As this word is awkward in English, it is better to speak of members of the Shinto tradition.

Sikh(s)

A religious community that arose early in the 16th century in India, Sikhs today live all over the world. Sikhs have their own scripture, the Holy Granth, which contains poems and songs from Muslim and Hindu seers as well as poems of the founder of the tradition, Guru Nanak.

Sikhism

Refers to the beliefs and practices of Sikhs. It is better to speak of the Sikh community and of the Sikh tradition, as no religious tradition is an "ism", a system of thought that is self-contained and unchanging. The Sikhs have no formal priesthood. Worship consists of hymns, readings, prayers, and the sharing of food in communal dinners.

Sin(s)

Refers to that which separates us from God. This concept is developed within the Jewish and Christian traditions. The story of Adam and Eve in the beginning of the Bible tells of the first act of sin, the rebellion of men and women against God, but it also represents the human experience of pride, greed, guilt, and shame. Sin refers to the wrong that we do, even perhaps when we are trying to achieve some good end. It identifies our blindness, our tendency to see the wrong that others do but not the wrong that we do, our propensity for self-delusion. In the Jewish and Christian traditions, sin is overcome by acts of repentance on the part of the faithful; but Jews and Christians tend to differ in their understanding of the efficacy of these acts.

Christians generally believe that Christ died for the sins of the world, for the errors of humanity, and that because of this act of divine and human love we are able to repent of our sins. Christians differ in emphasizing the importance of the good works that are part of repentance, as to whether these works are an essential part of salvation or are simply the fruits of the salvation which has come through Jesus Christ. Jews generally believe salvation comes through the observance of Jewish law. Jews do not believe that Jesus took away the sins of the world.

Soul(s)

Refers to the spiritual center of the person. In the Hindu tradition this center is reborn again and again in different lives, depending on its karma, until it finally escapes from the cycle of rebirth. Buddhists teach a doctrine of no-soul to emphasize that what we take to be ourselves, even our highest selves, does not exist but is only a form of attachment and suffering. In the theistic traditions that do not teach the rebirth of the soul, the soul is seen as the kernel of personality, which is either punished or will be raised to be with God on Judgment Day.

Spirit(s) The word Spirit usually refers to God, at least when it is capitalized. Christians speak of the Holy Spirit as one of the personal manifestations of God in history and in the life of the church. Jews and Muslims both refer to the Spirit of God. Thus the word is particularly useful in interfaith work because it refers to God: who is named as Father by Christians, and as YHWH by Jews, and as Allah by Muslims. Moreover, members of other religious traditions, including the indigenous traditions, also refer to the divine power as Spirit.

In addition, the Spirit may be thought of either as masculine or feminine or neither, and thus it allows people of faith with different feelings about the anthropomorphic descriptions of God to both agree and disagree. They can agree on God as Spirit, even if they disagree about God as Father, YHWH, Allah, Great Spirit, and Goddess. In interfaith discussion the plural Spirits is never used, but the plural spirits is common. The latter refers to spiritual beings or energies, but may also be understood as emanations of the one Spirit.

Spiritual

Refers to religious discipline or practice. Today, however, spiritual is often used rather than "religious" to indicate a less institutionalized form of discipline or practice. There are even some who claim to be spiritual but not religious, because they do not belong to any religious community or embrace any particular religious tradition. It is better, however, to use the word more particularly to refer to religious discipline or practice.

Spirituality

A new noun in the English language that refers to religious disciplines or practices. Today there is talk of studying spirituality, as if one can do so without participating in a particular religious tradition or community. This kind of talk should be avoided. The idea of spirituality, as some sort of generic spiritual practice, is not helpful. There is no spirituality apart from the teachings and practices that are known to us through the various religious traditions, or which becomes rooted in a new religious community and tradition. All spiritual teachings and practices become institutionalized in one way or another, or they cease to exist.

Subjective

Refers to perceptions and understandings that are influenced by one's experience as a participant in that which is perceived and understood. For instance, a Muslim's understanding of Islam would be described as a subjective understanding, whereas a scholar's understanding of Islam might be said to be objective. The term may be used merely to describe a difference in perception but often has a negative connotation, as though one who has a subjective understanding of something understands that reality less adequately than one who has an objective understanding. The history of religion scholar, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, suggests that a more comprehensive understanding of religious experience and the life of faith communities requires attention to both subjective and objective understandings. He urges those who study religious traditions as observers and those who study them as participants to share their insights. He believes not only that each can learn from the other, but that through conversation observers and participants can come to a more comprehensive description of a religious tradition.

Sufi(s)

A member or members of a mystical tradition within Islam. Sufis emphasize religious experience over the keeping of the law and are therefore more open than many Muslims to interfaith cooperation and shared prayer. Recently Sufi organizations that claim to teach a spiritual practice independent of Islam have been founded and are gaining adherents in Western societies. Therefore, one may encounter Sufis who assert that they are not Muslims.

Superstition

This word came into use to distinguish authentic religious beliefs and practices from false religious beliefs and practices. It connotes an erroneous understanding of reality based on ignorance of the true nature of causation. In interfaith activity this word is never used, even though people disagree about the nature of reality.

Perhaps it might be used to refer to those acts which are done without really believing in them, but just as traditional acts, such as carrying a rabbit's foot for luck or throwing a pinch of spilled salt over one's shoulder. What would then be superstitious would not be the act itself, but the attitude of the person doing the act. In this sense, one participating in a ritual act with the belief that the act is efficacious and true would not be acting on the basis of a superstition. It would be superstitious, however, for someone to do this same act, even though she or he did not really believe in it, just "to be safe" or just for good luck.

Syncretism

This word is used to describe the illegitimate amalgamation of religious teachings and practices from different traditions. It is clear to anyone who studies the history of religious traditions that they undergo change over time and as they enter or encounter different cultures and other religious traditions. Such change is often resisted by some, who would maintain a tradition "as it always has been," but others see these changes as a way of reforming the tradition or renewing its spirit in forms more appropriate to a new situation. These developments and adaptations, or reforms and renewals within a religious tradition, are not syncretism.

This modern word is best limited in meaning to conscious attempts to mix elements from different religions into some new religion, which is thought to be superior to all others because it combines "the best elements" of each. This crafting of a universal religion, which is a composite of elements from historic religions, must be distinguished from appreciating and respecting and using elements from different religious traditions to enrich one's own religious practice and understanding within a particular religious tradition.

The distinction between syncretism and Unitarian and Universalist traditions of thought is quite subtle but very important. Unitarians and Universalists, who affirm that God is one and that the different religious traditions of the world are varied expressions of a single divine reality, may well use teachings from different traditions and spiritual practices within their own tradition of thought and devotion. But this is not the same as simply picking and choosing pieces from different religious traditions in order to construct a composite and presumably, higher and more encompassing religion. This latter activity is syncretism.

Theological

Refers to thinking and talking about God. This word generally is used to describe the doctrines or at least the ideas that the members of a religious tradition use to explain their beliefs and practices. Strictly speaking it should be used only for religious traditions which are theistic. Buddhist teachings, for instance, should not be described as theological but as philosophical, as they are not based on faith in God.

Theology

The discipline of thinking and talking about God. Theology takes place within a specific religious tradition and community. That is, there is no such think as generic theology. Thinking about God within the Christian tradition is Christian theology. Thinking about God within the Islamic tradition is Islamic theology. One cannot "do theology" apart from any tradition or religious community. Those who do talk about God apart from a religious tradition would rarely if ever refer to their ideas as theology, but would more likely speak of spirituality in order to distinguish their thinking from the teachings of the historic religious traditions.

Theravada

Refers to Buddhist teaching and practice which emphasizes the early sutras and the individual effort of the disciple. This is the earlier form of the Buddhist tradition, which has continued to be the dominant form in places like Sri Lanka. Generally Theravada Buddhists did not emphasize the bodhisattva way of seeking enlightenment through works of compassion and service as well as through meditation and the keeping of Buddhist precepts. Today, however, monastic communities in the Theravada tradition may include such good works along with their practice of meditation and their monastic discipline.

Tribal(s)

This word refers to peoples who still live in communities that are organized primarily around kinship relations. The religious teachings and practices of such communities are sometimes called indigenous, as they are inseparable from the culture of the people.

Ultimate Concern

The Protestant theologian Paul Tillich used this phrase to refer to that which is ultimate and thus is the goal of all those who are religious. He believed that this philosophical language might be helpful in distinguishing worship and love of God, which involves being concerned about what is ultimate, from religious practice which is a projection of our self-love and a means of giving divine sanction for the concerns we believe are ultimate.

This phrase is quite commonly used in theological and interfaith conversation today. At times the emphasis, however, is on our concern rather than on what is ultimate. That is, one can use this phrase in a purely descriptive sense to mean our ultimate concern, the concern that we hold to be ultimate regardless of how one evaluates that concern, rather than to refer to our concern for what is truly ultimate.

Unitarian(s)

Unitarian religious communities have generally developed as reform movements within societies dominated by the Christian tradition. Unitarian teaching stresses the oneness of God, or the eternal Spirit of life, and often specifically rejects the Christian doctrine of the trinity. Unitarian communities developed first in Transylvania in the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, and later independently in North America and Britain. Most Unitarian communities around the world are the result of contact with either British or American Unitarian thinkers, or both.

Unitarianism

This refers to the philosophy of Unitarians. Because the emphasis on the unity of the divine Spirit rejects not only the doctrine of the trinity but dogma as well, Unitarian communities are usually very open to people of different beliefs. In Unitarian communities there is a strong affirmation of the right of individual conscience. Thus it is less helpful to speak of Unitarian thought and religious life as Unitarianism, because there is no systematic doctrine defining the life and practice of Unitarians.

Unity

Refers to what religious traditions have in common and share, as opposed to the ways that they differ. The phrase "unity with diversity" has become very common in interfaith activities. Generally, this unity is not clearly defined but is understood to include the intentions of the participants to cooperate on issues of mutual concern, many ethical norms, and an affirmation of the oneness of God. What is not contemplated by most of those who participate in interfaith activities is the unity of all religion, if by this one means the amalgamation of religious traditions into one religious tradition.

Universalist(s)

Universalists affirm that there is a common, meaningful structure of reality underlying all the diversity of life. In North America, where Universalist thought developed in the 19th century, Universalists have joined with Unitarians to form the Unitarian Universalist Association.

Untouchables

The outcastes of the caste system in Hindu culture. These peoples are considered polluted and therefore are not allowed to touch utensils and other items used by caste Hindus. In the villages of India they must live by the garbage dumps and drink from separate wells. Untouchability has been outlawed in India but is still widely practiced in rural areas. Gandhi called Untouchables "Harijans" which means "children of God." Today in India organizations which represent Untouchables and seek to enforce their rights under the law refer to their people as "Dalits" which means "the oppressed." Dalits argue that Hinduism is not a religion but an oppressive culture.

Yoga

A Hindu word for a teaching or a way of spiritual living. In contemporary society yoga often refers to physical exercises that are more precisely known as Hatha Yoga.

Wisdom

Usually distinguished from knowledge, wisdom refers to knowing the reality of things rather than knowledge about things. This wisdom is subjective rather than objective knowing, more intuitive than didactic. Wisdom is a word often reserved for spiritual sages, who may or may not be very knowledgeable about the ways of the world, but who know a great deal about the ways of God.

World

May refer descriptively to the earth and human society on it but frequently in religious writing has a negative connotation. Religious teachings often depict the world as a place of illusion, or as fallen creation, or as a form of polluted life. In such a view, religious teachings, disciplines and rituals are ways of being freed from illusion or sin or pollution in order to attain liberation or eternal life with God.

Worship

Devotion to God expressed ritually. Worship is an appropriate term only for those religious communities that are theistic, which involve surrendering oneself to the will of God. Worship is the ritual act expressing this surrender and reaffirming one's relationship to God. The word "devotion" is more broadly understood and may be used to describe worship and religious practices and rituals of those who are not theists.

Zoroastrian(s)

There are very few practicing Zoroastrians today, but in interfaith activities they are often represented. Members of the Zoroastrian tradition, also called Parsees, trace their teachings and rituals back to the revelation of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) in Persia about 600 BCE. He saw the world as a great struggle between Ahura Mazda, the divine force of good, and the forces of evil. Zoroastrians believe that on the Last Day Ahura Mazda will win the battle and bring into being a new reality. Zoroastrian priests transmitted this theology through rituals and teachings, and it is apparent that at least some of these ideas found support in the Judaic and Christian traditions.