Heaven(s)

A place or places where those who are saved go after death. Heavenly places are described in many of the religious traditions. Metaphorically heaven refers to oneness with God, and so one may describe the state of being saved and knowing the presence of God as heaven on earth.

Hell(s)

A place or places where those who are not saved go after death. Hell, as described in many of the religious traditions, is a place of torment and punishment. It is part of the justice of the divine order that those who are not faithful in life suffer judgment after death.

Hermeneutical

Refers to ways of interpreting texts and religious ideas. Scholars sometimes refer to the hermeneutical circle to suggest that one cannot interpret a tradition except from within a particular interpretative framework. That is, there is no way for anyone to stand apart from the culture that has shaped her or his mind in order to look at the world. Thus there is no pure objectivity, although one can be more or less objective. All observation takes place within a particular interpretative framework, which is shaped by assumptions and perceptions of which we are not always aware.

Hinayana

Literally means "little raft." This term is used by members of the Mahayana (big raft) wing of the Buddhist tradition to refer to Buddhists of the other major wing of the tradition. Members of this other wing prefer to call their form of Buddhist teaching Theravada, which means "original," for they claim their way is closer to the original teachings of the Buddha.

Hindu(s)

Refers to people who live within the culture that has been shaped by what are called Hindu teachings, the Vedas and the Paranas. Hindus include a wide variety of beliefs and practices but share a basic orientation within a culture which emphasizes caste distinctions, purification practices, and devotion to representations of the divine. These representations are more popularly referred to as idols.

Hinduism

Refers to the religion of the Hindus. This term is misleading, as there is no organization or historical movement that identified itself as a religion of the people now identified as Hindus. There are philosophical ideas that have been gleaned from the writings and mythology of Hindus, but these are not necessarily believed by those known as Hindus. One may refer to the Hindu tradition, but it is even more accurate to speak of the religious traditions of Hindus.

Holy

Word describing something that is sacred or held to have power beyond our knowing and controlling. Another word for divine.

Human Rights(s)

After World War II the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was promulgated by the newly organized United Nations to set forth the fundamental freedoms and rights which all people should enjoy. Although the notion of rights is not traditional in any religious culture, and historically has been resisted in most religious cultures, today many religious leaders have affirmed human rights as an expression of the ethical teachings of their tradition. Some religious leaders have been in the forefront in the global movement to secure human rights for the peoples of the world.

Humanist(s)

Refers to those who affirm ethical commitments without asserting that they are necessarily derived from a God or from gods. Some humanists are religious, believing that religion strengthens humanist values, but others argue that religion is the great enemy of humanist values.

Idol(s)

In the three monotheistic traditions - the Jewish, the Christian, and the Islamic - idols are false gods, and those who worship them are denying the true God. For some in the Hindu and Buddhist traditions, idols are representations of divine power, and worshipping them does not necessarily mean denying that there is a unity to that divine power. Specifically, the gods and goddesses represented in Hindu temples are called idols, and in this sense the word is used descriptively without any negative connotation to mean figures or statues

Idolatry

The practice of worshipping false gods. For the members of Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions, worshipping any representation of more than one God is idolatry. For Jews and Muslims, Christian forms of worship which focus on Jesus as the Christ or the Son of God are idolatrous, as is worshipping any personal representation of God. Metaphorically, idolatry is worshipping anything that is less than divinity itself, and thus is a danger in all forms of worship, for we tend to reduce that which we worship to what we want to see, hear and understand.

Inclusive

In interfaith discourse this word refers to the belief that the salvation offered through one's religious tradition includes those of other religious traditions, whether they accept this fact or not. This position is distinguished from exclusive claims that would restrict salvation to the participants of one tradition.

Indigenous

Adjective used to refer to the ancient religious traditions of peoples which seemingly originated with them and remained part of their culture. Sometimes indigenous traditions are referred to as tribal religions or native religions. Native American religion is one example. These religious traditions are concerned more with ritual than with doctrine and usually are not based on a text or scripture but are transmitted through stories and songs. Some would say that indigenous traditions are not religions at all, reserving this word for those religious practices that have been distinguished in some way from the cultural traditions of a people. It is more helpful, however, to speak of indigenous and historic religious traditions than to restrict "religion" to the historic traditions.

Individual(s)

It is better in interfaith contexts to speak of persons rather than individuals, unless one is referring to members of Western societies and traditions where the concept of the individual is highly developed. In indigenous and Eastern cultures persons are understood very much as members of communities. In the West individuals are generally seen as persons who have defined themselves over against their community by making independent choices.

Individualist(s) The word "individual" may not have a negative connotation, but the noun "individualist" or the adjective "individualistic" does. It means someone who asserts personal freedom without any regard for the needs or rights of others.

Interfaith (Inter-faith)

Commonly used now to refer to activities and conversations that involve persons of different faith traditions and are intended to increase understanding and cooperation among them. Some persons argue that the hyphen is important, because they believe that "interfaith" may imply some merging or mingling of different faith elements or traditions. Others see "interfaith" as a word much like international, which clearly refers to the relations and activities of separate nations and thus acknowledges distinct entities even as it describes what they share and the relationships between them. Interfaith suggests personal sharing by members of two or more faith traditions, whereas interreligious refers to activity or dialogue conducted by representatives of different religions.

Interreligious (Inter-religious)

Literally means involving members of two or more religions. Often used synonymously with interfaith (inter-faith) and, as with these two terms, the hyphen is important for some persons in denoting the distinctiveness of the religions involved. As the word religion suggests a perspective on the faith tradition or traditions of others, inter-religious may imply looking at religious traditions with others rather than personally sharing one's own faith. Those who wish to emphasize personal sharing generally speak of interfaith rather than of inter-religious activities.

Islam

The religion of those who affirm that Muhammad is the last prophet (the seal of the prophets) and that the Qur'an, which was revealed to Muhammad, is the final revelation of the one God (which is what Allah means in Arabic). Members of the Islamic tradition are called Muslims.

Islamicist(s)

Refers to scholars of Islam, not to members of an Islamic faith community.

Israel

In a story recounted in both the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, Jacob receives the name Israel after wrestling all night with an angel (or spirit) at the Jabbok ford. The meaning of the Hebrew word is "he who strives with God" or "God strives." The descendants of Israel were called the Israelites, and the land which they inhabited came to be known as Israel. Israel became a nation under the leadership of Saul and David, about 1000 BCE, but then it was divided into two nations that represented a division among the tribes of the Israelites. The northern of the two nations was called Israel, the southern Judah. The Assyrians conquered Israel early in the eighth century BCE, and Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 BCE. Leaders were sent into exile, and foreign peoples were moved into the area. Descendants of these exiles began to return after the Persians defeated the Babylonians in 539 BCE, and they tried to restore ancient Israel as a nation. However, it would not be independent of foreign rule until the partition of Palestine in 1947 and the war for independence in 1948. The citizens of the modern nation of Israel are called Israelis rather than Israelites, as the latter word is reserved for the people of the ancient kingdom.

Jain(s)

People who affirm an ancient Indian tradition of absolute non-violence with respect to living things. Jains sometimes wear masks in order not to breathe in and kill small insects. In practice, Jain monks attempt to live a life of strict non-violence, whereas lay Jains live as other modern people do, although they support their monks and may later in life take up the monastic discipline. Some Jains have recently become very active in ecological activities, seeing this as an expression of their faith.

Jew(s)

Descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob (Israel) and those who have joined Jewish communities by marriage and/or conversion. The phrase "observant Jew" refers to one who observes Jewish holidays and at least some of the ritual requirements of Jewish law. Thus the word "Jew" does not mean that one is religious but may simply refer to belonging to the Jewish cultural tradition or being of Jewish descent. The ancient people of Israel are called Israelites, not Jews. After the ancient state of Israel was destroyed and its leadership exiled, the Israelites in exile began to be known as Jews.

Judaism

Refers to the Jewish religious tradition. Not all Jews practice Judaism, nor is everything that is Jewish a part of Judaism. The adjective for Judaism is not Jewish but Judaic. Thus one may speak of the Judaic tradition, meaning the religious tradition of the Jews, as well as of the Jewish tradition, meaning the history and culture of the Jews. Sometimes the term Judaeo-Christian is used to refer to the biblical tradition of teachings and history shared by Jews and Christians.

Kami

This Japanese word refers to the gods or spirits that in the Japanese tradition are understood to manifest themselves through certain natural objects and also through certain persons. The kami are a source of power. Shinto rituals address one or more kami and seek to maintain a good relationship with them. Ancestors may become kami, and thus it seems to many Westerners that Japanese engage in ancestor worship. Some Japanese argue, however, that their rituals are a way of revering and paying respect to their ancestors and are not worship as such. Kami may be understood as manifestations of a single divine source or energy, but in fact the Japanese attend to them as if they were distinct, local deities dwelling in certain places and having very particular concerns.

Karma

Used by Hindus and Buddhists to refer to moral causation. What one does is a result of one's karma, one's past moral choices, and will shape one's future choices, or karma. Good leads to good, bad to bad. In the Hindu tradition, karma is the thread which connects one's various lives or reincarnations and which determines whether one is reborn in a more or less advanced form of life. While karma may be understood as deterministic - meaning that one's present choices are determined by one's past choices - many Hindus and all Buddhists would argue that there is personal freedom. They assert that karma creates the context in which one faces a choice, thus limiting that choice but not necessarily determining it. Hindus may hold to a more deterministic notion of karma than Buddhists, because the Buddha rebelled against Hindhu thought and practice in part because of its emphasis on one's inability to escape one's past. The Buddha taught that each person could become awake, become enlightened, be saved, even in this lifetime, a teaching which would be incomprehensible without a strong affirmation of personal freedom.

Knowledge

In contemporary religious discussions this word generally refers to knowing about things. To be knowledgeable is to be well informed. In traditional cultures knowing may be much more related to experiencing and participating in a reality, rather than knowing about it by observing and recording or studying the accounts of others. This may best be referred to as wisdom.

For many today knowledge is part of the quest to see things objectively, and discussion about religion generally reflects this perspective. In traditional societies the people who know something best are those who have entered into special or sacred experiences by which they have learned the inner character of structure of reality. Today many people look to scientists or social scientists for knowledge. In traditional society people looked to shamans, their spiritual healers and visionaries.

Law

In general, law refers to rules or a set of standards used for judging correct behaviour. Christians often contrast law with faith in order to justify the view expressed by Paul in the New Testament that salvation comes not by keeping the law of God but by faith in God in Christ. Muslims, like Jews, would readily affirm that salvation comes through obeying the law of God (Allah). Islamic law, derived from the Qur'an and authoritative teachings about it, is referred to as Shariah. Christians tend to think of Jews and Muslims as being legalistic, and they tend to denigrate the legalistic position by asserting that people should keep the spirit rather than the letter of the law.

Liberal

Liberal religion refers to religious traditions that stress freedom of conscience. Such traditions do not have clear doctrines, or at least they do not make adherence to their doctrines the measure of faith or a criterion for membership in the community of faith. Freedom of religion is a central tenet of liberal religion. Liberal religion originated in the West, but its ideas have been adopted elsewhere, as members of traditional cultures have sought to integrate their Western education with their heritage. The International Association for Religious Freedom was founded in 1900 by leaders of liberal religious movements in North America, Europe and India.

Liberation

Although this word often has a political connotation today, as in the phrase "liberation theology" which describes efforts within Christian churches to confront political and economic injustice, liberation also is used in Eastern traditions to refer to the goal of religion, which is escape from the cycle of rebirth. In the Hindu tradition liberation is used to translate moksha, which means becoming one with God. In the Buddhist tradition liberation refers to being enlightened, that is, being free from the illusions which come with striving and thus free from suffering.

Lord

The title used to refer to God or to the divine. In the Bible, Lord is used to translate the Hebrew word Elohim, whereas God is used to translate the name which is ascribed to God, Yhwh or Yahweh. The vowels are not indicated in the Hebrew Bible, and as the name was not spoken because of its sacred character, no one really knows how to pronounce the word. The word, Jehovah, is one rendering. German scholars, who pronounce J like Y, created the word Yahweh.

In Islam, Allah has many attributions (including Lord) but no name, such as God has in Judaism. In the Christian tradition, the word Lord is used to refer both to God and to Jesus the Christ. In all these uses, Lord implies submission to a higher authority and power, even as a servant acknowledges her or his master as Lord. Whereas the word God may be merely descriptive, referring to the being is worshipped by others, Lord implies that one has faith in God.

Mahayana

Refers to the wing of the Buddhist tradition which begins in India but develops historically in northern Asia in China, Korea and Japan. Literally it means "big raft" and implies that this is the primary way for people to reach other shore where they will discover life as it truly is. In the Mahayana tradition the aspirant is aided by Buddhas and by Bodhisattvas, whereas in the Theravada (Hinayana) tradition the devotee relies on the teachings of the Buddha and the support of her or his community in addition to her or his individual effort.

Maya

In the Hindu tradition this refers to our illusory view of the world or to the goddess who creates such illusions. It is sometimes used metaphorically in religious discourse to refer to any false understanding.

Meditation

Refers to the practice of quieting and controlling the mind. Eastern forms of meditation have been widely publicized and taught in the West since the 1960s. They offer a variety of techniques and understandings, but all involve efforts to achieve a mental state that is different than that of everyday life and which is understood to be less subject to illusions and self-serving interpretations. In the Christian tradition meditation refers to pondering about scripture or giving a reflection on scripture, in a way which relies more on entering into the world invoked by the scripture passage, rather than simply analyzing it in order to derive a meaning.

Member(s)

This is the best way to refer to those who belong to a particular religious community. To call them "believers" is only accurate when they are members of a dogmatic tradition, or when they call themselves "believers." The word "believer" emphasizes the individual, whereas the word "member" places the individual within the relationships constituting the community.

Methodology

This describes the way that scholars or students of religion approach their subject. It refers to the assumptions that are made and the kind of information that is used to describe a religious tradition or community.

Muhammad

The founder of Islam and the vehicle of transmission of the Qur'an. He is called the Seal of the Prophets by Muslims and believed to be the last of the great prophets. Muslims do not claim that Muhammad is divine.

Muslim(s)

The name for followers of Islam. They should not be called Muhammadeans, as though they follow Muhammad. This unfortunate phrase was introduced by observers of Islam, who drew a parallel with Christians. Muslims do not worship Muhammad but only Allah.

Mystic(s)

Persons who experience the divine. This word is used quite loosely to refer to anyone who claims such an experience.

Mysticism

The philosophy of divine experience. As mystical experience is invariably individual, in that it involves transcending ordinary experiencing, this word is not very helpful. Generalizations can be made about the mystical experience of individuals, but these generalizations hardly constitute a philosophy or a system of thought. It is best to speak of mystics, or the particular experience of a person who is known as a mystic, rather than of mysticism.

New Age

A modern term referring to beliefs or those who hold them concerning a radical shift in understanding the world. New Age thinkers claim that scientific assumptions about reality are dated and that religious traditions are no longer helpful. They speak of new forms of consciousness, of a global mind, or of a universal shift in thought. They talk about the spiritual nature of reality, about life as a holistic system, and about the need for consciousness raising. They avoid traditional terms such as salvation, liberation, sin, prayer, and worship and prefer more psychological terminology.

Objective

Generally refers to the observation of something without any preconceptions or involvement. To be objective in this sense is to be uninvolved, dispassionate, rational, and neutral. Those who study religion objectively claim that they merely study the phenomena of religion. Objective is seen as the opposite of subjective, which refers to the perspective of one who is involved.

Today it is best to see these two terms as ends of a spectrum. Clearly one may be more or less objective, but it is not clear that one can be completely objective, if by that we mean without assumptions. In fact, what is called the objective study of religion operates within the framework of assumptions of social science, and thus it shares the bias toward measurable data and a language of causality that is confined to observable phenomena. One should not think that objective thought is necessarily better or more accurate than subjective thought. If we want to understand religion, we must listen to those who are religious and not merely observe their behaviors and analyze their written beliefs.

Pagan(s)

Refers to those who worship gods or a God in ways contrary to the historic traditions, especially the Christian tradition. This word is often tied to what is called natural religion or the traditions which worship nature. For most people it is a negative word. Some feminists and New Age thinkers, however, have revived the term in a positive sense to mean those who celebrate their place in nature and who may refer to the power of nature and its life giving forces as divine or a goddess.

Parsee(s)

Refers to members of the Zoroastrian tradition. Members of this small community are found mostly in India.

Perennial Philosophy

Refers to principles that are believed to underlie or be common to all the great religious traditions. Because contemporary scholarship in religious studies is dominated by social science methodology, it is averse to finding a common philosophy among religious traditions that have developed in different historical periods and cultural contexts.

Pluralist

One who affirms that salvation is offered through many if not all of the world's religious traditions. This philosophical position is called pluralism. A pluralist also affirms that diversity is good and not merely a fact.

Practice(s)

Refers to what religious people do as part of their spiritual discipline. The practices of a religious community would be its ritual forms of expression, its holidays, its recommended private forms of prayer, and so forth. The life of a religious community may be described in terms of its beliefs and practices. In some traditions the practices are far more important than the beliefs and define the tradition. In these cases one might speak of orthopraxy, rather than orthodoxy, to refer to following the proper way of living the tradition.

Prayer(s)

Refers both to the spoken praise and petitions which believers make of God and to unspoken and even unarticulated longing for closeness and comfort. In the Christian tradition this latter form is called contemplative prayer. For theists prayer is a central religious practice, but for most humanists and many Buddhists prayer is illusory, as there is nothing to pray to expect one's own projected wishes and longings. Some Christians claim that prayer is only valid if the name of Jesus us used, but this is clearly contrary to the teachings of Jesus, as the prayer he taught his disciples does not use his name.

Priest(s)

These are mediators between members of a religious community and God and are common in many traditions. They are generally ritually installed by the religious community and carry on specific ceremonial activities. In modern society priests may also be counselors. Protestants Christian generally do not refer to their religious leaders as priests, as they affirm that every member of their religious community may intercede directly with God without the assistance of a priest. This is traditionally called "the priesthood of all believers."

Priestly

Refers to the mediating function of priests and often connotes lavish or ornate dress and ritualistic behavior.

Prophet(s)

The word "prophet" means someone who speaks for God. The biblical prophets often used the literary formula, "Thus says the Lord," to show that their words were the word of God. In the Bible false prophets are portrayed as telling the king what he wants to hear. Messengers from God usually confront the king with the truth of his own failure or God's judgment on him and his people.

Muslims accept the Hebrew prophets as their own and understand Jesus as a great prophet within this tradition. They believe Muhammad is the "seal" of this prophetic tradition, that the Qur'an is God's last word, that is, the end of the history of revelation which began with Abraham and continued through Moses and the ancient Israelite prophets and Jesus.

Prophetic

Refers to the quality of statements made by true prophets. Such statements, made on behalf of God by the ancient Israelite prophets, invariably criticize the people for breaking the covenant with God and pronounce God's judgment. Some of the prophets also proclaim the renewal of the covenant relationship through repentance, sacrifice and God's forgiving love. A phrase such as "the prophetic tradition" refers to an accepted practice within a religious community, even if resisted by those in power, of self-criticism and the reform of institutions and dogmas that obscure the essential teachings of the community.